Comparing Religions

~~~~~~ World Bibliography of Beliefs, Theories and Theologies ~ click pix to enlarge ~~~~~~

Comparative religion

The Major religious groups of the world. In summary, religious adherence of the world’s population is as follows: "Abrahamic": 53.5%, "Indian": 19.7%, irreligious: 14.3%, "Taoic": 6.5%, tribal religions: 4.0%, new religious movements: 2.0%.

Map showing the prevalence of "Abrahamic" (purple), "Indian" (dark yellow), and "Taoic" (light yellow) religions in each country. Comparative religion is a field of religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world’s religions. Religion can be defined as "Human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual, or divine".

In the field of comparative religion, the main world religions are generally classified as either Abrahamic, Indian or Taoic. Areas of study also include creation myths and Humanism.

Abrahamic religions

In the study of comparative religion, the category of Abrahamic religions consists of the three monotheistic religions, Christianity, Islam and Judaism, which claim Abraham (Hebrew Avraham ?? ; Arabic Ibrahim ?? ) as a part of their sacred history. Other religions (such as the Bahá’í Faith) that fit this description are sometimes included but also often omitted.

The original belief in the One God of Abraham eventually became present-day Judaism. Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and continuation of the Jewish Old Testament, with Jesus as the Son of God. Islam believes the present Christian and Jewish scriptures have been modified over time and are no longer the original divine revelations as given to Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. For Muslims the Qur’an is the final revelation from God, with Muhammad as his messenger for its transmission.

Comparing Abrahamic religions

The "Tomb of Abraham," cenotaph above the cave traditionally considered to be the burial place of Abraham in the Cave of the Patriarchs.Christianity and Judaism are two closely related Abrahamic religions that in some ways parallel each other and in other ways fundamentally diverge in theology and practice. The article on Judeo-Christian tradition emphasizes continuities and convergences between the two religions. The article on Christianity and Judaism compares the different views held by both religions.

Further information: Judeo-Christian and Supersessionism

The historical interaction of Islam and Judaism started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam. There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism, and as Islam developed it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism. As opposed to Christianity which originated from interaction between ancient Greek and Hebrew cultures, Judaism is very similar to Islam in its fundamental religious outlook, structure, jurisprudence and practice. There are many traditions within Islam originating from traditions within the Hebrew Bible or from postbiblical Jewish traditions. These practices are known collectively as the Isra’iliyat.

Further information: People of the Book, Tahrif, Biblical narratives and the Qur’an, and Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)

The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam. Islam and Christianity share their origins in the Abrahamic tradition, although Christianity predates Islam by centuries. Islam accepts many aspects of Christianity as part of its faith - with some differences in interpretation - and rejects other aspects. Islam believes the Qur’an is the final revelation from God and a completion of all previous revelations, including the Bible.

Further information: Biblical narratives and the Qur’an, People of the Book and Tahrif

Indian religions

There are a number of religions that have originated on the Indian subcontinent. They encompass Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

The religion of the Vedic period is the historical predecessor of the Hindu religion. The Vedic and the Sramana tradition co-existed and influenced each other since pre-historic times. Jainism and Buddhism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition. Buddhism further diversified, into Chinese and Japanese schools.

Comparing "Dharmic" religions

The Rig Veda is one of the oldest Vedic texts. Shown here is a Rig Veda manuscript in Devanagari, early nineteenth century.Main article: Buddhism and Hinduism

Further information: Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu and God in Buddhism

Buddhism and Hinduism are both post-Vedic religions. Gautama Buddha is mentioned as an Avatar of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. Some Hindus believe the Buddha accepted and incorporated many tenets of Hinduism in his doctrine, however, Buddhists disagree and state there was no such thing as Hinduism at the time of Buddha and in fact, "Indeed, it absorbed so many Buddhist traits that it is virtually impossible to distinguish the latter in medieval and later Hinduism." Prominent Hindu reformers such as Gandhi and Vivekananda acknowledge Buddhist influence.

Further information: Shramana

Buddhism and Jainism are the two branches of the Shramana tradition that still exist today. Until recently Jainism was largely confined to India, while Buddhism has largely flourished outside of India. However the two traditions share remarkable similarities. In his life, the Buddha undertook many fasts, penances and austerities, the descriptions of which are elsewhere found only in the Jain tradition. Ultimately Buddha abandoned these methods on his discovery of the Middle Way or Magga. To this day, many Buddhist teachings, principles, and terms used in Buddhism are identical to those of Jainism, but they may hold very different meanings for each.

Hinduism and Sikhism have had a long and complex relationship. Views range from Sikhism being a distinct faith in itself to Sikhism being a sect of Hinduism. A vast majority of Sikhs oppose the notion that Sikhism is a sect of Hinduism, while others stress the similarities, but recognise that the religions are distinct.

Jainism and Sikhism have both originated in South Asia and are Eastern philosophical faiths. Jainism, like Buddhism, rejected the authority of the Vedas and created independent textual traditions based on the words and examples of their early teachers.

Taoic religions

Further information: Tao and De

The Chinese character depicting Tao, the central concept in Taoism.A Taoic religion is a religion, or religious philosophy, that focuses on the East Asian concept of Tao ("The Way"). This forms a large group of religions including Taoism, Confucianism, Jeung San Do, Shinto, Yiguandao, Chondogyo, Chen Tao and Caodaism. In large parts of East Asia, Buddhism has taken on some taoic features.

Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order. It is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered and is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao. The flow of Chi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Following the Tao is also associated with a "proper" attitude, morality and lifestyle. This is intimately tied to the complex concept of De, or literally "virtue". De is the active expression of Tao.

Taoism and Ch’an Buddhism for centuries had a mutual influence on each other in China, Korea and Vietnam. These influences were inherited by Zen-Buddhism when Ch’an Buddhism arrived in Japan and adapted as Zen-Buddhism.

Taoism and other religions

Comparing Eastern and Western religious traditions is closely related to the comparison of, and distinction between, Eastern and Western philosophy. Western tradition refers to prominent faiths in Europe and the Anglosphere, generally focusing on Abrahamic faiths. Eastern tradition refers to important faiths in the Sinosphere and Indosphere, usually focused on Dharmic and Taoic faiths.

It should be noted that there are two kinds of religions:

The first kind is a Society Model Religion which assumes that everything that happens on earth happens in said divine, otherworldly or invisible realm, therefore, God is maker and father of all. God rewards and punishes through messengers and various judgments handed down by laws. God loves and hates certain people in his creation, he is depicted as a human being. This is founded in human social interactions. According to the social model, God is Lord and as lord wants praise and worship. What matters is the interpersonal relationships among those he has created, both with each other and with the creator. These ideas are the basis of the western religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam. Because of adherence to a dogmatic style of thinking, adherents of society model religions often assume their scriptures are based on a historical point in time when in fact, like many religions and sects before them, the scriptures used myth and allegory within the narrative.

The second kind of religion is a Mind Model religion which assumes that the universe, whole reality and divine are thought to be like a mind, mental terms are formed in metaphor. In this model, the nature of reality can only be known through introspection and unlike the society model of religious adherence, salvation does not come from proper behavior, obedience and submission to the word of law. Rather, salvation comes from knowledge (e.g. Gnosis or Enlightenment), insight and meditation. It should be noted however that through meditation and insight self-discipline can be achieved. Mind Model religions are common in the eastern world religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism, and in esoteric western traditions such as Kabbalah and Gnosticism. There writings include myths and allegories; however they also have transformative properties that affect the reader who understands what is written.

It is dangerous to try and interpret a mind model religion into a society model religion as it will lead to misunderstanding. A great example would be the dispute between Gnosticism and Christianity where people believe that Gnosticism is an off-shoot of Christianity, when in fact it came before Christianity and was founded by a sect of Hellenize Jews who started this tradition, therefore much misunderstanding has erupted over the nature and roots of Gnosticism.

*Buddhism and Taoic religions

Taoism

"Gathering the Light" from the Taoist book The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by C. G. Jung and Richard WilhelmMain article: Taoism

The relationships between Taoism and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. Taoism in its early form was a mixture of early mythology, folk religion, and Taoist philosophy. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself into a more organized religion, while addressing similar existential questions raised by Buddhism. Early buddhism was sometimes seen as a kind of foreign relative of Taoism and its scriptures were often translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Ch’an Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism.

Confucianism

Confucianism in particular raised fierce opposition to Buddhism in early history, principally due to what it views as negative impact of Buddhist nihilistic worldview on society at large. The prominence of Confucianism in the Chinese society forced Buddhism to endorse certain uniquely Confucianist values. Over time as Buddhism became increasingly accepted by the Chinese intellectual class, relation between these two philosophies became more symbiotic. For example, Buddhism shares many commonalities with Neo-Confucianism, which is Confucianism with more religious elements.

Shintoism

In the Japanese religion of Shinto, the long coexistence of Buddhism and Shintoism resulted in the merging of Shintoism and Buddhism. Gods in Shintoism were given a position similar to that of Hindu gods in Buddhism. Moreover, because the Buddha Vairochana’s symbol was the sun, many equated Amaterasu, the sun goddess, as his previous bodhisattva reincarnation. The later Tokugawa Shogunate era saw a revival of Shinto, and some Shinto scholars began to argue that Buddhas were previous incarnations of Shinto gods, reversing the traditional positions of the two religions. Shinto and Buddhism were officially separated during the Meiji Restoration and the brief, but impacting rise of State Shinto followed. In post-war modern Japan, most families count themselves as being of both religions, despite the idea of "official separation".

*Buddhism and Christianity (see page devoted to comparison)

*Christianity and other religions (see page devoted to comparison)

*Confucianism and Hinduism

Both Hinduism and Confucianism are ancient religions, one founded in India and another in China. Between the two eastern philosphies, many similarities exist.

Similarities

Philosophical aspects

Both Hinduism and Confucianism are religions and philosophies both have white followers. They look deeper into the meaning of life, the actions of society, . They are both termed "eastern philosophies."

Importance of Nobleness

The disciples of both religions aim to become noble citizens of the world. Only then they may achieve the absolute truth. In Hinduism, this person is an Arya and in Confucianism, a Junzi.

Importance of Meditation

Meditation is an important aspect of Hinduism and Confucianism, especially for ascetics. It is a way to link the human mind with a concept of absolute truth.Through meditation only one can elevate self to GOD.

Absolute Truth

Both religions advocate a supreme nature. Hinduism stresses the Brahman and Confucianism the Tian or the Mandate of Heaven. Both the Brahman and the Tian were said by the followers of the two religions to be both personal and impersonal. Many times, followers only advocate one of the two aspects.

Purusha and Pangu

In Hindu mythology, the universe was said to be created by a giant being called Purusha who sacrificed Himself. Another popular Hindu story tells that the universe was created from an egg. In Chinese mythology, the universe was said to be created by a giant called Pangu who originated from a cosmic egg.

Differences

Reincarnation

Unlike Hinduism, Confucianism, at least neo-Confucianism rejects the idea of reincarnation.

*Hinduism and other religions

Indian religions

Further information: Indian religions and Eastern religions Hinduism has a history of co-existence with Buddhism and Jainism (the Shramana traditions), and more recently, with Sikhism, within the Indian subcontinent. Consequently, these religious traditions share a number terms and concepts such as dharma, karma or yoga.

Hinduism and Islam

See also: Islam in India, Islamic conquest of South Asia

Hinduism and Islam, from the of arrival of the Arabs as far back as the 8th century AD, has had a checkered history. In Islam, Hinduism found a very different concept of god and civic society than it had alwejlqwajroaw~coincided with the peak of Hindu vedanta revival and its idelogical reintegration of Buddhism and Jainism. During the Muslim conquests Islam gained many converts on the Indian sub-continent primarily from Hinduism or Buddhism; the two dominant local religions. The prime drivers for conversion are contested issues. Inter-marriage and immigration from other Islamic landshas have helped in instilling this idea in the people of greater India. Many of the new Muslim rulers looked down upon the idea Hinduism as having Iconodulistic religious practices and were to various degrees iconoclastic. Prominent examples of these are Mahmud of Ghazni and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb on either end of the timeline for Islamic rulers. In addition, Muslims in India also developed a caste system that divided the Arab-descended "Ashraf" Muslims and the "Ajlaf" converts, with the "Arzal" untouchables at the lowest rung The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.

In contrast there were also many Muslim kings who wished to live in harmony with the Hindus. Akbar and Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur Adil Shah dynasty are notable examples. Akbar’s court was home to intellectuals and saints both Hindu and Muslim, among them the great musician Tansen, and he even went so far as to try and create a new religion (the din ilahi) to create a rapprochement of both creeds.

The arrival of Sufi movement conversing with other mystic traditions of Vedanta and Yoga led to the rise of the syncretic Bhakti movement. Sheikh Muhammad was a Sufi saint who embraced the Hindu God Rama as his chosen bhakti ideal. Kabir wrote poetry and preached to the people, advocating a blend of philosophy and spiritual practices challenging the religious clergy of both Islam and Hinduism and claiming to be neither Hindu, nor Muslim.

The synergy between certain Sufis and Bhaktas in many regions of India led to Muslim and Hindu laity worshiping together at a mazar (Sufi shrine) attended by a Vaishnav priest. However, Muslim and Hindu conflict still exists in India feuled by a history of regional politics, nationalism, continued conflict and the history of the partition movements during independence from the British Raj.

Mughal art forms, especially miniatures and even certain niches of Urdu poetry, were quick to absorb classic Hindu motifs, like the love story of Krishna and Radha. Hindustani classical music is a complex and sonorous blend of Vedic notions of sound, raga and tala and absorbed a many instruments of either Middle Eastern origin or Indian-Muslim invention.

Today while Hinduism and Islam, have irreconcilable ideological differences and tensions, they share a common historical and social experience over a thousand years to result in a common social outlook.

*Hinduism and Confucianism

Both Hinduism and Confucianism are ancient religions, one founded in India and another in China. Between the two eastern philosphies, many similarities exist.

Similarities

Philosophical aspects

Importance of Nobleness

The disciples of both religions aim to become noble citizens of the world. Only then they may achieve the absolute truth. In Hinduism, this person is an Arya and in Confucianism, a Junzi.

Importance of Meditation

Absolute Truth

Purusha and Pangu

Differences

Reincarnation

Unlike Hinduism, Confucianism, at least neo-Confucianism rejects the idea of reincarnation.

*Islam and other religions (see page devoted to this)

*Islam and Jainism

Islam and Jainism came in close contact with each other following the Islamic conquest from Central Asia and Persia in the seventh to the twelfth centuries, when much of north and central India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal empire.

The Miyana Rajputs, many of whom were Jains (as per their last name) embraced Islam at the time of Allauddin Khilji (Kumar Suresh Singh, Rajendra Behari Lal, Anthropological Survey of India, P. 9390, Gujarat).

Muslim invaders and Jain institutions

Islams impact on Jain and Buddhist in India has been far worse than for the majority Hindu. The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" (near Qutb Minar) was built after demolishing the Jain temples built previously during the Tomar rule and leaving certain parts of the temple outside the mosque proper.

Jainism in the Mughal period

Some Jain influence at the Mughal court of Akbar has been documented. Akbar honored Hiravijaya Suri, the leader of the Shvetambara Tapa Gachchha. Jain monks gained the respect of the Mughal emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Akbar banned animal slaughter near important Jain sites during the Paryushana festival.

Jain-Muslim relations in modern India

Jains are a some of the noticeable non-Hindu supporter of Hindutva movement. The reasons are anti-Islamic world view as well as a cultural similarity between Hindus and Jains. Jains emphasis of nonviolence is very much in agreeable Islamic principles.

Author Sam Harris has compared the two religion. In an interview he states: "The principal tenet of Jainism is non-harming. Observant Jains will literally not harm a fly. Fundamentalist Jainism and fundamentalist Islam do not have the same consequences, neither logically nor behaviorally."

*Taoism and other religions (See Taoism)

*Zoroastrianism and other religions (See Zoroastrianism)